Rhetorical device: definition and examples

What is a rhetorical device?

S. I. Ozhegov’s explanatory dictionary shows the following definition of a rhetorical technique: an oratorical method that is focused on negation or expressive affirmation. Speech figures will be appropriate if you know how to use them.

Rhetoric is a science aimed at studying the patterns and rules of behavior in speech. With its help, they gain public speaking skills and develop oratorical abilities. A person influences the listener through intelligent and effective expression of thoughts. Visual and expressive means are of particular importance.

With the help of the law of harmonizing dialogue, feelings and thoughts are awakened, moving from monologue to dialogue. Listeners move forward through orientation and progression during speech. Effective speech impact with rhetorical techniques occurs using correctly constructed sentences and summarizing phrases. It is important that the speech is emotional and enjoyable.

With the help of rhetoric, the laws of eloquence are explained. The concept appeared at the beginning of the 19th century and divided eloquence into two parts: general with the study of speech style and private with the preparation of business documentation.

Expressive means of language

The lexical system has many faces. Constant updating of principles, methods and characteristics within the text provides the opportunity to update speech expressiveness. Rhetorical techniques and figurative and expressive means of language are supported by the reader’s imaginative thinking. Creating certain conditions will lead to speech becoming more expressive.

Independent thinking, consciousness, and activity of the author of the speech are necessary. He must be interested in what he speaks and writes about. It is important to know the expressive capabilities of the language. The speaker must practice systematically and consciously.

Expressiveness affects the strengthening and weakening of all elements. These include sounds, syntactic units, intonation, articulatory vagueness, lexical poverty, monotony in the construction of speech. Vocabulary suggests the use of rhetorical techniques of argumentation, evidence, and presentation of material using special means. Speakers often refer to:

Epithets.
Synecdoche.
Metonymy.
Allegories.
Irony.
Personification.
Paraphrase.
Comparison.

It is possible to make speech expressive using syntax and its stylistic figures. The speaker uses a rhetorical question, appeal, oxymoron.

Genres of oratory

Oratory consists of different rhetorical genres. These include a lecture, report, discussion, dispute, thesis, slogan. A type of journalistic style is oral public speech. It is distinguished by such characteristics as collectivity and mass participation of the addressee, the significance of the topic, and preparation for the speech.

The developed skills and abilities are considered oratory. Rhetoric studies these skills. Now these two terms are interpreted more broadly. They are a type of interaction that occurs after setting a goal, planning an impact, or predicting a result. Eloquence has been present in the Russian language for a long time. The types differ depending on the area of performance.

Political speech includes a parliamentary speech, a rally, an address by a deputy or the president.
The academic sphere includes a report, lecture, scientific discussion.
The trial includes the speech of the lawyer, the defendant, and the prosecutor.
Ordinary life is a social sphere with a compliment, a table speech.
The spiritual and moral includes the sermon and the speech of the missionary.
Negotiations, notes, and government statements are considered diplomatic.

Oratory is considered an art. Ancient figures believe that it can be learned.

The structure of oratory speech

In order to better understand the material below, I repeat once again that an oratorical speech consists of the following parts:

introduction - to draw the attention of the public, and it is also necessary to make it clear to the audience how important the chosen topic is, how serious and sensational it is;
proof - to argue the idea that was expressed in a condensed form during a public speech, as well as to fit statistical data, factors, logical constructions and emotionally charged phrases to these ideas;
conclusion - fixing in the listener’s memory both the desired impression and the main idea of the speaker, which has already been expressed, to summarize the entire speech.

Well, now we can talk about parts of public speech. There are types of speeches, let's look at them:

Positive performance. This is the most popular of all available. It immediately presents the main concept in an intelligible, but very declarative, one might say poster form.
Negative speech. This provides a refutation of a thought, concept or idea without any alternative.
Analytical. This speech does not impose any specific positions on the audience. It suggests exploring the factors together. However, the information is selected in such a way that the audience already has a specific opinion necessary for the speaker from the very beginning of the speech.
Paradoxical. This performance puzzles the audience, leads them off the stereotypical path, thereby preparing them to perceive something unusual. The structure is exactly the same as the negative one, that is, the audience is kept in the dark about the speaker’s positive proposal until the very end of the public speech.
Emotional. This speech is the most vague. It often happens that an emotional speech can do without any parts of a public speech or can include other parts of a public speech. The form can be compared with a positive speech. However, the content is slightly different: there is no hint of a call, no formal call.

Just as there are types of public speaking, there are types of evidence. There are four types of evidence. So, let's look at them:

Logical proof. Relies on rational thinking, leads the audience to the truth of thought;
Informational evidence. During this proof, either reference material, or statistical data, or facts are provided;
Emotional proof. This requires both acting skills and enormous dedication from the speaker. Sometimes it is convenient to confirm the correctness of an idea by referring to authorities. The speaker’s thought is expressed imperatively.
Reference proof. The speaker, who has many years of oratorical experience behind him, relies on previously prepared theses and uses references to the opinions of authoritative individuals or organizations to confirm the value and correctness of his position.

Rules of eloquence

There are several rules that a future speaker must follow. By adhering to them, he can easily win over the audience:

Listeners should be the center of attention. It is necessary to focus on the interests of the audience and monitor the reaction to the words spoken.
The relationships are important: the speaker to the audience, the speaker to the content of the speech, the listeners to the content of the speech.
Be sure to set performance goals.
Use body language.
Gives expression to the voice.
They know how to answer questions.

Every thought is proven and argued. Speech is distinguished by harmony and dignity. The performance should bring maximum benefit and aesthetic pleasure. These rules need to be remembered and made a guide to action.

Stages of a speaker's work

At each stage of oratorical activity, rhetorical techniques are provided in the text, which differ depending on the purpose of the prepared speech. The first is called invention. The speaker develops the subject of speech, strategy, and selects material.

The speech will be impressive, based on deep thought. Rhetorical techniques with examples will help you determine what methods of conveying information you need to choose to communicate with your audience.

Innovation is not the invention of something new, but the use of rules and techniques to collect the most complete information and establish connections between thoughts. When selecting material, they use their own research, observation, reasoning, and literature.

The next stage is argumentation. The speaker selects points that confirm or refute the opinion. Rhetoric involves citing real-life cases and examples. Logic is the rationale for what has been said and the conclusion. Both of these concepts are closely intertwined.

Disposition represents the structure of the speech. Along with the use of rhetorical techniques, a consistent presentation of the material is necessary. This happens by dividing topics into micro-genres, which make up the complete composition. In the usual sense, these are the introduction, the main part and the conclusion. The beginning and end are the most informative.

Elocution is a section that is necessary to prepare expressiveness and effectiveness. It comes together with style. This is how the image of reality is created, the syllable becomes alive, light, harmonious. The speaker's goal is to construct the text and each individual part. The speaker improves his thoughts, competently constructs phrases, and selects appropriate vocabulary.

4.2. Techniques for establishing contact with the audience

Contact with the audience is the highest manifestation of public speaking skill. This community can arise on the basis of common mental activity, on sensory experiences that are similar. The speaker will receive a response from his audience if he shows his own attitude to the subject of speech, as well as the interest and conviction of the speaker. It is also very important that you need to feel your listeners, and it is also necessary to put into practice the ability to correct speech depending on their reaction. The speaker must be able not only to argue on some topic, but also have a huge range of knowledge on numerous issues.

A positive reaction to what the speaker says, “working” silence in the hall, as well as the listeners’ posture, the audience’s gaze, head nods, exclamations of approval, laughter, their smiles and applause - all these are the main indicators between communicators. Contact is a quantity that is variable, that is, it can be complete (with the entire audience) or incomplete, stable or unstable at various stages of speech delivery.

Eye contact must not only be established, but also constantly maintained with the audience. This is necessary in order to win the audience. The person who speaks, as a rule, slowly glances at absolutely all the listeners.

Before you begin your public speech, you need to take a short psychological pause. This pause lasts from five to seven seconds. The speaker’s speech should not be monotonous or monotonous. Phrases must be separated by pauses, and must also be pronounced with different intonations.

Today's oratory is characterized by a combination of such linguistic means as emotional - figurative, as well as logical - analytical.

The attention of listeners tends to become dull, and this does not depend on how interesting a particular topic is to the audience. There are a number of oratorical techniques to maintain the attention of listeners:

Question and answer reception. The speaker himself asks questions and gives answers to them, clarifies the doubts raised, as well as objections, and comes to specific conclusions;
Such a technique as the transition to dialogue from a monologue introduces participants to the process of discussing any topic, and also includes their interest;
Creating a situation that is problematic. "Why?" - this is exactly the question that the created situation should pose to the audience. Thanks to this, their cognitive activity is stimulated;
There is another technique that literally forces listeners to think and speculate. This technique is called the “reception of novelty of information”;
The next technique is based on personal experience, on personal opinions, on what has always been and will be interesting to the listener;
“Demonstration technique”: how significant is practical information;
The same technique gives the audience a “break,” that is, it is necessary to deviate a little from the topic;
This technique is called “quiet voice”. With its help, it is not at all difficult to draw attention to important places in the speaker’s public speech. It is necessary to simultaneously slow down and lower the strength of the voice;
This technique is called the “gradation technique.” That is, this is an increase in the semantic and emotional significance of the word. This technique can help both strengthen and give emotional expressiveness to both a formulated thought and just an ordinary phrase;
Reception of inversion. This technique is a figure of speech. Such a turn can turn the generally accepted, common course of expressions and thoughts into the opposite direction;
This technique is called “the technique of appealing to one’s thoughts.”

Next, what I would like to note are lexical techniques due to the fact that they significantly increase the persuasiveness of oratorical speech. Tropes are what the manuals for a given art recommend for use in oratory.

Trope - (from the Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) the figurative meaning of the word, that is, the expression of words, phrases in a figurative meaning. If we take this term in a narrow view, then it is a word transformation, with the help of which one can achieve the aesthetic effect of expressiveness in speech. The trails include the following:

comparisons;
metaphors;
epithets;
allegories;
hyperboles and others.

Metaphor: using this technique, the name is transferred from one object to some other object. This is a speech rapprochement of two phenomena due to either similarity or contrast (“The locomotive of history cannot be stopped...”).

Comparison: this technique is popular in use, it is used much more often than all others because it is with the help of this technique that the speaker can achieve the result that was intended. Comparison is endowed with colossal persuasive power; it is capable of activating both figurative and associative thinking of listeners.

Epithet: this technique allows you to reveal the essence of an object or phenomenon by defining it figuratively (“A student is not a vessel that should be filled with knowledge, but a torch that needs to be lit!..”).

Hyperbole: with the help of this technique, the properties or qualities of phenomena or objects are deliberately exaggerated (“A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper”).

Allegory: this technique is capable of allegorically depicting something (“Once a passer-by asked a builder: “What are you doing?” He thought and answered: “Don’t you see? I’m carrying stones.” The second builder answered the same question: “I’m making money!” ).

It should be noted that in a speech it is best to pay attention to short sentences, as they are much better remembered and also better perceived. In addition, such proposals allow a more varied approach to changing intonation.

The means that were listed above serve not only to unite the audience and the speaker, but to overcome the so-called “barrier”.

Homogeneity and heterogeneity of the audience

The complexity of the speech depends on whether the audience is homogeneous or heterogeneous. The first category of listeners is approximately the same age. Their intelligence and awareness are at the same level. They are presented with information in a simplified form, for example, when the audience is for children.

For schoolchildren and preschoolers you will also need visual material. The speech should be short, the listeners should be praised and encouraged. Speaking to young people takes place without edification and “reading morals.” Young people can be interested in a story with a touch of humor, revelations, and personal assessments. To convey information to the older generation, a rhetorical device with a slow sound is chosen. They appeal to the experience of the audience, facts from history, and support the words with a reference to the source.

When viewers show indifference, use the ability to capture and hold the audience with the help of emotionality, vivid images, and appeals to individual listeners, there should be a feeling of informing, and not of a desire to convince of something.

Speaking to experts involves a rhetorical technique with the presentation of new information. It is important to use dialogue and persuasion through arguments. The speech is delivered at a fast pace. Rigid listeners are not ready to change their point of view, so the presentation is prepared in an informational version.

Speaker and his audience

In order to successfully speak in front of a large crowd of people, the speaker needs, first of all, to attract the attention of absolutely the entire audience, it is necessary to force people to listen to himself. 5At first glance, it may seem that controlling such a mechanism as listener attention is very simple. However, it is not. A performance that will bring success depends on the abilities of the speaker, on his professionalism, preparedness, and on those factors that he cannot influence in any way.

For a successful speaker

Rhetorical techniques and principles of constructing public speech are based not only on facts. They evoke certain emotions and feelings, making speech lively and animated. The speaker will undoubtedly be a success with the public. With the help of speech they create vivid images in people's minds. The purpose of the techniques used is the desire to captivate, capture the attention of the public, and make the speech understandable and interesting. Cicero said: “There is no eloquence without the admiration of the listeners.” Each technique should be considered separately.

Performances in literature

Synecdoche. It helps to transfer the name of the particular to the general and vice versa, increases the aesthetics of speech, gives it depth of content. “I want to go for a walk and breathe” - take a walk.

Simile and metaphor. One of the main rhetorical devices is comparison. It is used so often that people themselves do not notice that they are using it in various speeches. Necessary when you need to convey numerical information. It is difficult to understand what a diameter of two billion kilometers is, but if you compare the size with Mount Everest, it becomes clear.

Metaphor is one of the rhetorical devices in literature when the properties of one object are transferred to another. For example: “The sunset was glowing. The quiet whisper of the waves can be heard.” This technique is less common, but it enhances the impact on the listener.

Repeat. Important key points are repeated at least twice. This should be done so that the listener returns to the speaker’s topic. It seems that the information is new, but in fact it is conveyed in different words. The listener will pass off the speaker’s thought as his own, and the speech will become convincing. Repetition should be inserted where necessary to increase interest.

There are several ways to use the rhetorical device of repetition. To make an emphasis, the idea is conveyed exactly. They change the sentence variably, leaving the main idea. With the help of an extension, the offer is designed in new images. This is necessary when the key point is lost in the total mass of what was said.

Citation. This method is necessary to inspire trust among unfamiliar people. They use statements from leaders and public figures. Excerpts from historical documents and sayings of philosophers make the transmission of information reliable.

Antithesis. They use rhetorical techniques in the text to contrast completely different phenomena, processes, concepts that are opposite in meaning. “The weather was terrible, the princess was beautiful.”

Allegory. Transferring an abstract concept through a concrete image. You can often find the personification of the ant and hard work, the donkey and stubbornness. This is a complex technique that requires good public speaking and preparation.

Hyperbola. It is used when the speaker is sure that what he said will not be perceived as fiction. The speech should not be too emotional and pathetic. Such rhetorical techniques are used in a literature lesson to clearly show how the author emphasizes certain properties of the subject.

Rhetorical appeal. The statement is addressed to an inanimate object. The technique of rhetorical appeal enhances the expressiveness of speech. The main task is the desire to express the attitude towards the subject, to characterize it. A peculiar turn of phrase is used with a questioning or exclamatory intonation.

Rhetorical techniques in public speaking: 12 ways to effectively influence the audience

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Hello, friends! Glad to see everyone. Yuri Okunev is with you.

For an effective presentation, it is not enough to know the topic and have an impeccable command of the facts. You must be able to evoke certain emotions and feelings in the listener, make your speech lively and animated, in order to be successful with the public. Rhetorical techniques that enhance the effect of public speaking will come to our aid.

Wind in my head...

Have you ever sat in a boring lecture or meeting when the speaker talks and talks endlessly in a monotone voice, putting the audience in the front row to sleep? It probably happened.

And what remained in your head after that lecture? Emptiness and free wind. And someone else is annoyed: oh, so much time was wasted! Let’s not be like would-be orators, let’s take note of the basic rule of rhetoric.

The speaker's speech should create vivid images in people's minds. Then the presentation will be interesting and memorable, and the information will be absorbed.

A good speech “must be seen and felt by the listener,” as R. Harris, the famous English lawyer, said.

Special rhetorical techniques help the speaker create images. The purpose of these techniques is to make speech more understandable and interesting, to captivate, capture the attention of the audience and direct the thinking of the masses in the right direction, that is, to convince.

“There is no eloquence if there is no admiration of the listeners”

And these are the words of Cicero, the unsurpassed Roman master of words. There are a lot of rhetorical techniques in oratory. Let's look at those that are more common.

Synecdoche

This is a technique based on transferring the name of the general to the particular and vice versa. For example:

Germany avoided defeat in the match with Australia.

This does not refer to the geographical location, but to the meeting of two football teams in the game - German and Australian. Synecdoche increases the aesthetics of speech and gives it deep content.

Simile and metaphor

If you have to touch upon abstract and philosophical concepts in your speech, try to find a visual image of them in the form of a physical object or phenomenon that will be familiar and understandable to everyone present. This is the basis of the comparison method.

A striking example of such a technique is M. Khodorkovsky’s public speech at the trial, where he was charged with stealing 347,000,000 tons of oil from the state.

Then Mr. Khodorkovsky compared this volume to a freight train that circles the Earth three times along the evator line. It immediately became clear to everyone present in the courtroom how big a figure 347 million was; it was impossible for one person to steal that much oil.

The technique of comparison has a younger sister - metaphor. A literary device when the properties of one object are transferred to another. Example:

The sunset was glowing. The quiet whisper of the waves can be heard.

The properties of fire are attributed to sunset, and the rustling waves resemble human speech. Metaphor is used in oratory less often than comparison. Nevertheless, this technique increases the artistry of speech and enhances the impact on listeners.

Repeat

It is recommended to repeat the most important, key points of your speech at least twice throughout the speech. This is done for several reasons:

The listener may get distracted, think about his family, about some current problems and let your words fall on deaf ears. By repeating a thought, you force the listener back to reality;
Repeating the main idea expressed in different words gives listeners the impression that they are perceiving completely different information (even though the information is the same). Thus, a new thought is quickly deposited in the subconscious of the public.
If you now repeat the thought again, and again in a new version, then the process of remembering will start. The listener will pass off your thought as his own and agree with you. Your speech will be convincing to him.

Be careful with this technique, insert repetition where it is really necessary.

Repetition bores the listener. Speech filled with short and voluminous images that does not require explanation increases interest.

Four ways to play with repetition in text

Exactly the same. This is a repetition, “word for word” quoting a thought that was expressed earlier. Used to create an additional accent.
Option. We retell the main idea in other words, paraphrase.
Extension. We develop the previously voiced idea, add new images to it, and clarify controversial points. Use repetition-extension if an important and key thesis, in your opinion, sounded unconvincing or was lost in the text.
Conclusion. A brief summary of everything said earlier before moving on to the next part of the speech. Mainly used in lectures and training courses.

Citation

Quoting statements from famous leaders and public figures will help you win over and melt the ice of mistrust in an unfamiliar audience.

Against the background of excerpts from historical documents, sayings of philosophers, your words in the understanding of the public will automatically be translated into the category of reliable. It is appropriate to provide 1-2 quotes at the beginning of the speech, before moving on to the main part.

Call

It consists of a short address to the audience with a proposal to perform a certain action. This technique is appropriate if 2 conditions are met:

You are completely confident in the trust and sympathy of the audience;
You want to create a vivid image of your idea in the minds of your listeners with their direct participation.

This method is typical for military-patriotic speeches, political speeches, and advertising campaigns.

A rhetorical question

A question for which there is no exact answer is called rhetorical. This method invites the listener to reasoning and active thinking.

To be or not to be?

– the hero of Shakespeare’s tragedy asks his famous rhetorical question. The technique forces the listener to immerse himself in the image and content of the speech. Having uttered a question, the speaker pauses and gives the audience an opportunity to think.

Don't use this technique unless you're sure your audience shares your point of view. For example, to the question: “Is it difficult to get up early and go for a run in the park?” You may not hear a negative answer if the public is far from the Spartan way of life.

Insert

The speaker makes a small remark as if “by the way”, inserts a phrase, thereby he joins the audience, makes it complicit.

For example, the speaker says: “The condition of the roads at the moment leaves much to be desired.” And as if he casually remarks: “It’s not for me to tell you this...”

After such a phrase and a significant pause, there will not be a single listener left in the hall with an indifferent and bored face. The insertion technique is a win-win method to attract the audience’s attention to the problem under discussion and gives the topic a bright touch of relevance.

Despite its simplicity, the technique requires the speaker to have a certain degree of relaxation and sophistication in the art of oral and public speaking.

Crossing (chiasmus)

An oratorical technique that consists of cross-changing the endings of two parallel phrases.

Learn to love the art in yourself, and not yourself in the art.

The famous phrase of K.S. Stanislavsky, based on the chiasmus method. Here's another phrase with a pun added:

The honor of our unit is part of our honor.

Most of the famous sayings of philosophers are based on the technique of crossing. This method allows you to increase the persuasiveness of your speech and makes the speaker’s speech more vivid and expressive.

Antithesis

The essence of the technique is the opposition of completely different phenomena, processes, concepts, opposite in meaning. A contrast is created that captures the imagination of listeners.

“They got along. Wave and stone, Poems and prose, ice and fire are not so different from each other.” (A.S. Pushkin)

Hint

The technique is used when, due to certain circumstances, the speaker does not want to directly talk about some event or phenomenon. In this case, the speaker makes a hint about this event. Example:

Unstable political circumstances, as we know, sometimes force us to remember the Phrygian cap.

If you don't know that the "Phrygian cap" is a headdress worn by the leaders of the French Revolution, then the meaning of this phrase will be vague. Putting on the Phrygian cap means “taking up arms.”

It is important to take into account that the event or phenomenon that the speaker wants to talk about is clear and recognizable to everyone present, otherwise the hint will go unnoticed and will not have the desired effect.

Chain

Another interesting technique is that the speaker throws out a sensational phrase, causing shock in the listener. Then the speaker builds a logical chain, during which the meaning of the first phrase is clarified.

Everything falls into place, and the audience breathes a sigh of relief. Let me give you an example of a toast:

“I want you to die... So that you die at 100 years old... So that you die at 100 years old at the hands of a jealous person... And so that your death is deserved!”

The chain technique allows you to rivet the public's attention to the speaker for a long time, and the longer the chain of words, the more tension and interest in the hall increases.

Surprise

A paradoxical statement with subsequent decoding. The surprise technique allows you to take the listener by surprise, shake up a low-active audience, and make an impression.

For example, a speaker states: “An optimist is a loser!”, and then adds “...who believes that everything is fine.” This oratorical method should be used quite rarely and to the point so as not to smooth out the effect.

Afterword

The main goal of any public speaking is... What do you think? No, not information. The purpose of the speech is to convey the speaker’s attitude to the topic, his subjective point of view. The speaker conveyed his point of view to the ears of the audience, managed to convince - the speech took place. Didn't deliver, got stuck halfway - bad speaker.

It is rhetorical techniques that help the speaker achieve a persuasive effect, create an image, and confidently lead the audience. And of course, an important component of the success of a speech is the strength of the speaker’s voice, his impeccable speaking technique.

A video course by public speaking coach Ekaterina Pestereva “My tongue is my friend” will help improve this factor. All exercises in the course are provided with detailed instructions and tested by many years of practice.

Well, I ran to improve my speech. Subscribe to the news, don't miss the latest articles, and share with friends. I look forward to your feedback in the comments.

See you later! Best regards, Yuri Okunev.

How to influence the public

A rhetorical question. They are asked to force the audience to actively think and reason. The speaker asks an unanswerable question and gives time to think.

Insert. An important rhetorical device in which a phrase is inserted as if by the way. And the audience becomes an accomplice, and not an outside observer. This is a way to help attract the audience to the issue being discussed.

Crossing (chiasmus). A way to cross-change the endings of phrases. A. Griboyedov said: “Despite reason, in defiance of the elements.” People often say: “Eat to live, not live to eat.”

Hint. Some rhetorical techniques in public speaking are necessary in order not to speak directly about an event or phenomenon. Not suitable for advanced listeners. If it is not clear what the speaker is talking about, the hint will go unnoticed.

Chain. A way to convey information using a sensational phrase to cause shock. After this, a logical chain is built, during which the meaning of the first phrase will become clear. The method helps to attract the attention of the public for a long time. The longer the chain, the greater the tension.

Surprise. Suitable for low-active audiences. Takes you by surprise, makes an impression. They are used rarely, at the right moment, so as not to smooth out the effect.

Framing. It is important that the speaker knows how to present the same material in different circumstances. This is one of the rhetorical principles and techniques for manipulating a mass audience and is an integral part of neurolinguistic programming. Helps change the shade of perception of things.

The effect of novelty. The audience's attention dissipates after 20 minutes, then it is difficult to retain it. The human brain does not perceive one information for a long time. The report should contain short speeches. These include jokes and funny examples from life. This gives listeners a chance to relax. After this, the information is again perceived by the audience. It is also important to introduce new information on the main topic. It should not be revealed at the beginning of the speech.

Summoning A way to appeal to something. It works when the audience has a positive attitude towards the speaker and supports his ideas. The audience is addressed in two or three phrases, calling for some action. The speaker must be completely confident in the sympathy of the audience, have the desire to create a vivid image of the idea in the minds of the listener with their direct participation.

Functional and semantic types of speech

The composition of oratorical speech is not homogeneous. This is due to the fact that a person, when thinking, reflects a variety of connections between objects, between phenomena of reality, between events, as well as between individual judgments. There are such types of speech as: 2

description;
narration;
reasoning.

And it is in these styles of speech that these connections are expressed. In this regard, the oratorical speech appears to us:

monologue narration;
monologue reasoning;
monologue narration

Narration is a type of speech that reports on states, as well as actions that develop in a time sequence. In addition, they have their own linguistic means. 3This type of speech is characterized by such a feature as dynamics.

Based on the fact that this type of speech includes situations that have dynamic reflections, this mechanism determines its position in speech.

With the help of verbs, the dynamics of this type of speech are created. Very often, verbs of a specific action are used because they have the ability to express both the sequence of events and their rapid change. It should be highlighted:

specific narrative;
generalized narrative;
informational storytelling.

Description is a type of speech that gives an idea of character, gives a statistical picture, an idea of the structure, an idea of the qualities of an object, of properties by listing features both essential and not essential at a certain moment.

This type of speech, such as description, is also divided into:

statistical;
dynamic.

Reflection or reasoning is a type of speech in which the internal characteristics of both phenomena and objects are revealed, specific provisions are proven, and, naturally, the study of phenomena and objects is carried out.4 Those judgments that are included in reasoning have special logical relationships with each other , this is what characterizes this type of speech. Such logical judgments form either one conclusion or a series of conclusions on a specific topic.

By its very nature, oratory is controversial. This is due to the fact that it reflects the contradictory conflicts of communication and current life. There are two types of disputes:

implicit (or hidden, internal);
explicit (or open, external).

Controversy is communication that takes place in public, masters of speech, an argument in the process of discussing a specific issue.

Speakers can argue a lot; during disputes, they use all the means freely available from the huge arsenal of polemics. This includes irony, allusions, sarcasm, and antithesis, as well as numerous omissions, remarks, comparisons, and relief.

How to develop rhetorical speech: stages

To develop rhetorical speech, you need to go through several stages. This will allow you to apply basic rhetorical techniques at any speech, regardless of the audience.

At the first stage, an idea appears that needs to be developed. But this needs to be done on paper. They pose the question of how to write so that everyone present understands it? The first draft is reread several times. After correcting errors, read with intonation. This will allow you to fill in the gaps and correct what you don’t like.

The second stage is more difficult. Brevity is considered the sister of talent, so the written report must be shortened. To do this, read the text twice: the first slowly, the second quickly. The speaker will see if there are unnecessary entries or words, repetitions. If no modification is required, proceed to the next stage.

You will need a voice recorder or gadget with a recording function. It is necessary to record the prepared speech so that there is no inconvenience. The speaker himself should be surprised at his achievements. Frequent practice of this method will help make your thoughts clear. The voice becomes richer in intonation, the mind works faster.

How to talk about difficult things

Speaking to experts is quite easy. If you have to speak in front of an audience that does not understand the topic, you will need careful preparation. They use examples and images, tell a short story, draw an imaginary situation.

In business oratory, rhetorical techniques with examples in colloquial speech are selected taking into account several factors. The first is the characteristics of those present. The speaker must take into account the nationality of those present, whether the audience understands the topic of the speech, and whether it is culturally developed. The second presupposes the content and nature of the speech. They do not allow an authoritarian tone, they show trust in people, and consult with them in the process of presenting information. The third factor is the speaker’s objective assessment of personal qualities.

There are several types of communication:

They teach with the help of a mentor.
Spiritualizing is necessary to uplift people, to instill in them faith in personal qualities.
The confrontational variety involves the desire not to object, to agree with the speaker.
Informational – necessary to convey information to listeners.

Business people do not use the latter type of speech. More often they choose an inspiring manner of communication, in some situations a confrontational one. The speaker applies such principles of influence as associativity, accessibility, intensity, expressiveness.

In colloquial speech, a certain set of tools is used. They use a visual image, the effect of the first phrases, argumentation, relaxation, intonation and pauses. The first type involves impressions of the speaker’s appearance. This evokes sympathy or antipathy among listeners. An elegant manner of communication, friendliness and openness have a positive impact.

To correct the first impression, the effect of the first phrases is necessary. The main criterion is the information contained in them. It may already be known, but presented in a new interpretation with original examples. The speaker needs to have a set of phrases aimed at specific listeners.

The effect of argumentation is related to the logic of the speech. This gives the speech validity and persuasiveness. A theory includes a concept, a scientific position, a hypothesis. Empirical argumentation is facts and figures with statistical indicators. Both methods are present in every performance.

The quantum release of information is a rhetorical device necessary to maintain the attention of the audience. The speaker needs to think through thoughts and arguments throughout the speech. This will lead to the activation of listeners' attention through the periodic release of new information.

The Science of Teaching Eloquence

In ancient Greece, rhetoric was taught to young men. Modern people need to learn this on their own. If “you have a good tongue,” then there will be no difficulties with public speaking. Daily communication will help correct the situation.

The problem can be solved through courses or training. When preparing on your own, you will find out what the audience will be like. Knowing who is included in the mass of those present, the speech is adjusted in such a way as to arouse interest. The plan for the speech is drawn up in advance. It will help when the speaker does not know how to improvise and is too worried. Highlight key points, include graphs, tables, diagrams. In conclusion, be sure to repeat the main idea.

You cannot drag out the speech, since not every interested listener will be able to sit for a long time. It is important to be concise and use clear and understandable phrases. Rhetoric is not only the ability to express one’s thoughts, but also the ability to make them understandable. The speaker learns to energize the audience with his ideas. The voice must be well-trained and facial expressions must be developed. This will make the presentation of the text emotional and more relatable to the public.

The main purpose of a speech is not information, but conveying your point of view. If the speaker managed to convince the audience, the speech took place. The use of techniques is an important component in achieving a persuasive effect.

Speech preparation and presentation

There are three interrelated questions that the speaker faces:

How to say?
Where to say?
What to say?

The process of developing a speech begins with understanding the topic of your speech, its main idea. Relevance, interestingness, specificity, accessibility - all these qualities should be possessed by the chosen topic. The title of the lecture is also important, since it should not only intrigue the future audience and attract their attention, but also reflect the entire content of the speaker’s speech.

What I would like to tell you about the goal: it is necessary to clearly outline it - the speaker not only tries to form in his audience specific beliefs and ideas that determine their further behavior, but also conveys information to the audience, talks about any facts or events. Whatever the speech, it must have an educational purpose, that is, the speaker, to the best of his ability, must introduce his audience to his own moral interests. This process should take place unnoticed by the listeners.

Imagining how the audience will perceive the speech and what will be incomprehensible to them is an integral part of preparing a public speech. The speaker is obliged not only to know, but also to take into account the composition of his future listeners. If the speech is not given to all listeners in general, but to a specific group of people who have their own goals and interests, then the effectiveness of the speech will increase noticeably.

Composing the speech itself, working on factual and theoretical material is the next stage, that is, it is necessary to formalize the speech compositionally and stylistically.

In order to study the material, you can turn to manuals, dictionaries, reference books, and so on.

After the material has been studied well, as a rule, they write either a summary of the text of the speech, or its outline, or the entire text, or theses.

Performance methods:

reading text;
reproducing it from memory with reading individual fragments;
free improvisation.

In what cases is the text read? So, let's look at them:

if it represents an official statement, the form and content of which cannot be deviated from;
if the speaker is “out of shape”;
if the material is large and completely new to the speaker.

When a speaker reads his speech and the audience's reaction gets out of control, it is very tiring. The failure of speakers is due to the fact that when reading a text “from a piece of paper” the speech becomes the same (monotonous), fast, and this quickly begins to tire the audience.

Before starting his public speech, the speaker needs to carefully prepare his speech to the smallest detail. It is necessary to correctly determine the topic, purpose, and title of the public speech, while taking into account both the composition of the audience and the situation. After this, you need to draw up a plan, select both theoretical and factual material. Rehearsal is a part that is considered necessary during preparation; it is impossible to do without it. Attention should be focused on pronunciation technique, but other aspects should not be left in the shadows during preparation.

At the final stage of preparing for a public speech, it is necessary to analyze it more than once, take into account such aspects of the speech as strengths and weaknesses, and already in the audience, when addressing your listeners, rely on the positive.7