Speech genre: definition, types. Oratory

Introduction

One of the highest talents is, nevertheless, the ability to influence people. Oratory has a lot of important meaning: measuring the world understanding of the people who are listening in a particular area, as well as influencing the actions of listeners. And, precisely in connection with this, this topic is relevant.

One of the most ancient philological sciences is rhetoric. Its warehouse was formed in Greece in the 4th century BC.

The main content of this science is the theory of argumentation in public speech. Even then, the outstanding philosopher Aristotle defined such science as “the ability to find possible methods of persuasion regarding each given subject.”

In ancient times, rhetoric was divided into the following sciences:

1. logic;

2. ethics;

3. physics.

This talent dates back to ancient times. It is also necessary to note the fact that there is a colossal number of historical events that could not have come true if there were no people who directed their development in a specific direction.

In ancient times, the Greeks loved to talk and listen just as much. We can say that the whole life of this people passed in endless conversations. The Greeks managed to transform public performance into something more: into an art that can be compared to both dance and music. Each nation brought something new, something of its own to art. So, for example, the Romans introduced severity, and the Malaysians - pomposity.

There were also times when the art of oratory was so valued that people who mastered it were carried in their arms. But it’s worth noting that much more often it was the other way around: people were punished for speaking correctly.

Unfortunately, we will never have the opportunity to enjoy the magnificent speech of Demosthenes, the sermon of John Chrysostom, and even what Copernicus said last before making the statement that the planet rotates.

The true art of an orator can only be observed by those who are close to him. Such talent, in this case, can be compared with the theater: “everything disappears when the curtain closes.” However, if in the theater a speech delivered in a timely manner has limitations - applause, then in oratory such a speech can turn everything upside down.

Purpose of the work: to study such a topic as the culture of oratory.

Objectives of this essay:

1. identify the structure of this art;
2. determine its types and genera;
3. determine functional and semantic types of speech.

Structure: this work consists of ten chapters, three of which are structural elements (introduction, conclusion, list of references), and seven chapters are the main part, the fourth chapter includes two paragraphs. The total volume is twenty-five pages.

What books are worth reading?

When answering the question of how to learn eloquence, it is useful to study special literature. To do this, it is not necessary to study the dictionary; there are various educational and interesting manuals.

The following educational books will be useful for self-study:

• Irina Golub’s book “The Art of Rhetoric. A manual on eloquence."
• Practical advice and recommendations are presented in the work of Radislav Gandapas “The Kama Sutra for the Orator”.
• “Oratory for Beginners” by O. Bolsunov is popular due to its thorough analysis of the mistakes that speakers make.
• Black Rhetoric by Carsten Bredemeier includes exercises and techniques to help you speak persuasively and negotiate with the right arguments.

Regular reading of fiction also enriches your vocabulary. Classical fiction allows you to study the stylistic presentation of thoughts and, to some extent, adopt the beauty of the presentation of the syllable.

Specialized business literature will help you learn to communicate competently and professionally in your field of activity.

Literature on the psychology of communication will help you correctly formulate the logic of speech. There are different categories presented here: negotiation techniques, communication skills and public speaking.

Literature on the psychology of communication teaches the correct formulation of the logic of speech. There are different categories presented here: negotiation techniques, communication skills and public speaking.

Types and types of oratory

The genera and types of this art were not formed immediately, but gradually. These divisions are distinguished based on the spheres of communications, which, in turn, correspond to one of the main functions of speech, namely:

1. impact;
2. message;
3. communication.

In the real practice of public communication, there are types of oratory. So this is:

1. socio-political eloquence;
2. judicial eloquence;
3. social and everyday eloquence;
4. spiritual (church-theological) eloquence.

Such eloquence as socio-political includes speeches whose themes are either socio-political, or socio-economic, or socio-cultural, or ethical-moral.

There is academic eloquence. This is a certain type of speech that helps to form a scientific worldview, which, in turn, has distinctive features - scientific presentation, logical culture, as well as deep argumentation. Academic eloquence can include a scientific report, a scientific message, and both a university and popular science lecture. This type of speech has many similarities with the scientific style of speech. However, in academic eloquence, expressive means are very often used.

Social - everyday eloquence. This genus includes the following:

1. greeting speech;
2. speech given at diplomatic receptions;
3. table speech;
4. anniversary speech (this can be delivered both to a specific person and to a significant date).

Judicial eloquence. This type of speech exists in order to influence the court purposefully and also effectively. Judicial eloquence contributes to the formation of exhortations of judges, as well as those who are present in the room at that moment. Judicial eloquence is also divided into:

1. defensive speech;
2. prosecutor's speech;
3. lawyer speech;
4. accusatory speech.

Spiritual (church-theological) eloquence. This genus is considered the most ancient; it has its own traditions, as well as rich experience. Highlight:

1. official speech is a speech that is delivered to people serving the church or other persons interacting with official action;
2. A sermon is a speech that is delivered to people coming to church, and it must also be accompanied by church actions.

Inter-style, as well as general linguistic means - this is the base that underlies any kind. But it is necessary to note that any kind of oratory has its own specific linguistic features that form a microcircuit with the same stylistic coloring.

Oral genre

Oral speech is the speech that a person hears. At the same time, he selects only those “sound images” that are close and understandable to him. Everything else falls on deaf ears, as they say. This is a necessity, because in the entire flow of speech, words flowing one after another give rise to images according to the principle of metonymy, contiguity, and logic. The following oral speech genres are used in communication:

• conversation - exchange of opinions or other information;
• compliments - praise of the interlocutor, the purpose of which is to please him;
• story - a monologue of one of the interlocutors, the purpose of which is to narrate an incident, event, etc.;
• conversation - speech directed to the interlocutor, with the purpose of conveying information, clarification or clarifying relationships;
• dispute is a dialogue aimed at clarifying the truth.

Oral speech, like written speech, has its own norms and regulations. Sometimes some flaws in oral speech, such as unfinished statements, weak structure, interruptions, repetitions and similar elements, are a necessary condition for a successful and effective result.

The role of functional styles of literary language

An oratorical speech can only be prepared. Preparation takes place using book and written sources, which, in turn, significantly influence both directly and directly on the structure of speech.1

The informative function underlies the official business style. This style of speech serves the sphere of relationships that are officially business.

Functions such as reporting and evidence of information are at the core of the scientific style. Sphere of scientific knowledge.

The journalistic style is based on functions such as message, as well as impact. This style of speech serves both the sphere of socio-political, and the sphere of socio-cultural, and many other social relations. In a journalistic style, absolutely all means that are linguistic can be used. This style is characterized by economy of linguistic means.

The artistic style is based on functions such as impact and aesthetics. In this style, the national language and literary language are most closely reflected.

Practical advice

When studying on your own, you should use the following tips:

It is necessary to monitor your speech and carefully choose your social circle. Reading books will allow you to develop a rich vocabulary and increase your knowledge. It’s better to talk a little, but only to the point. We must strive to ensure that every phrase spoken is bright and complete. It is recommended to prepare a speech for a public speech in advance.

It is important to prepare mentally for improvisation. You need to speak clearly, calmly and loudly, but not loudly. When reading a report, you need to look at people, not at papers. Using pauses, it is necessary to highlight formulations and important words.

A professional approach involves finding your own style in oratory. A delivered speech helps to affirm your beliefs and influence people, but you cannot impose your opinion.

It is important to convince the audience that is ready to listen

It is necessary to gain experience, because only practice will help hone your skills.

No less important is the question: how to improve the beauty of speech in your child. Such a skill will allow you not only to answer well at the board, but also to become a successful person in the future. To do this, it is recommended to read books, listen to audio fairy tales and arrange home performances. It is necessary to encourage the child to speak and ask him leading questions.

Regular classes and hard work in developing eloquence can turn almost any person into a real speaker.

Functional and semantic types of speech

The composition of oratorical speech is not homogeneous. This is due to the fact that a person, when thinking, reflects a variety of connections between objects, between phenomena of reality, between events, as well as between individual judgments. There are such types of speech as: 2

1. description;
2. narration;
3. reasoning.

And it is in these styles of speech that these connections are expressed. In this regard, the oratorical speech appears to us:

1. monologue narration;
2. monologue reasoning;
3. monologue narration

Narration is a type of speech that reports on states, as well as actions that develop in a time sequence. In addition, they have their own linguistic means. 3This type of speech is characterized by such a feature as dynamics.

Based on the fact that this type of speech includes situations that have dynamic reflections, this mechanism determines its position in speech.

With the help of verbs, the dynamics of this type of speech are created. Very often, verbs of a specific action are used because they have the ability to express both the sequence of events and their rapid change. It should be highlighted:

1. specific narrative;
2. generalized narrative;
3. informational storytelling.

Description is a type of speech that gives an idea of ​​character, gives a statistical picture, an idea of ​​the structure, an idea of ​​the qualities of an object, of properties by listing features both essential and not essential at a certain moment.

This type of speech, such as description, is also divided into:

1. statistical;
2. dynamic.

Reflection or reasoning is a type of speech in which the internal characteristics of both phenomena and objects are revealed, specific provisions are proven, and, naturally, the study of phenomena and objects is carried out.4 Those judgments that are included in reasoning have special logical relationships with each other , this is what characterizes this type of speech. Such logical judgments form either one conclusion or a series of conclusions on a specific topic.

By its very nature, oratory is controversial. This is due to the fact that it reflects the contradictory conflicts of communication and current life. There are two types of disputes:

1. implicit (or hidden, internal);
2. explicit (or open, external).

Controversy is communication that takes place in public, masters of speech, an argument in the process of discussing a specific issue.

Speakers can argue a lot; during disputes, they use all the means freely available from the huge arsenal of polemics. This includes irony, allusions, sarcasm, and antithesis, as well as numerous omissions, remarks, comparisons, and relief.

Types of writing

Written speech has its own characteristics. The ability to see the structure of the text helps to better understand the author's intent and content. The meaning of the term “type of speech” is visible in its name. “Type” is general, “speech” is sentences, that is, sentences with a general meaning, meaning, combined into one fragment.

Types of speech are speech unities distinguished by structure, integrity and completeness. The fragment values ​​can be as follows:

• signs of an object;
• actions of persons;
• human condition;
• state of the environment;
• explanation and reflection.

The authors set themselves three goals: to tell, to depict, to prove. Based on the goals, three main types of speech are formed:

• narration;
• description;
• reasoning.

The text belonging to one of the standard fragments is built according to a certain model. Knowing the features of the models, you can easily distinguish between them. Large works use compositional speech forms, where each type of speech performs its own function. The core part of the text is often the narrative. The description of one item serves as a background for the display of another. Reasoning speaks about the hero’s doubts, about his search for truth.

Externally, in terms of the implementation of the author's task, the narration can be compared to a film, where frames replace each other, description - with a photograph, reasoning - with a flowchart with arrows and questions.

Speaker and his audience

In order to successfully speak in front of a large crowd of people, the speaker needs, first of all, to attract the attention of absolutely the entire audience, it is necessary to force people to listen to himself. 5At first glance, it may seem that controlling such a mechanism as listener attention is very simple. However, it is not. A performance that will bring success depends on the abilities of the speaker, on his professionalism, preparedness, and on those factors that he cannot influence in any way.

Properties of public speaking

Various public speaking skills are developed in the process of relevant classes and trainings, and their manifestation is public speaking, which has the following basic properties:

1) special structure of speech , the relationship between linguistic and non-linguistic (facial expressions, gestures) means of persuading the audience;

2) the focus of the speech on obtaining a response from the listeners, since its goal is not simply conveying information, but persuasion;

3) effectiveness , depending on the psychological mood and state of the speaker, his authority in the eyes of the public.

4.2. Techniques for establishing contact with the audience

Contact with the audience is the highest manifestation of public speaking skill. This community can arise on the basis of common mental activity, on sensory experiences that are similar. The speaker will receive a response from his audience if he shows his own attitude to the subject of speech, as well as the interest and conviction of the speaker. It is also very important that you need to feel your listeners, and it is also necessary to put into practice the ability to correct speech depending on their reaction. The speaker must be able not only to argue on some topic, but also have a huge range of knowledge on numerous issues.

A positive reaction to what the speaker says, “working” silence in the hall, as well as the listeners’ posture, the audience’s gaze, head nods, exclamations of approval, laughter, their smiles and applause - all these are the main indicators between communicators. Contact is a quantity that is variable, that is, it can be complete (with the entire audience) or incomplete, stable or unstable at various stages of speech delivery.

Eye contact must not only be established, but also constantly maintained with the audience. This is necessary in order to win the audience. The person who speaks, as a rule, slowly glances at absolutely all the listeners.

Before you begin your public speech, you need to take a short psychological pause. This pause lasts from five to seven seconds. The speaker’s speech should not be monotonous or monotonous. Phrases must be separated by pauses, and must also be pronounced with different intonations.

Today's oratory is characterized by a combination of such linguistic means as emotional - figurative, as well as logical - analytical.

The attention of listeners tends to become dull, and this does not depend on how interesting a particular topic is to the audience. There are a number of oratorical techniques to maintain the attention of listeners:

1. Question and answer reception. The speaker himself asks questions and gives answers to them, clarifies the doubts raised, as well as objections, and comes to specific conclusions;
2. Such a technique as the transition to dialogue from a monologue introduces participants to the process of discussing any topic, and also includes their interest;
3. Creating a situation that is problematic. "Why?" - this is exactly the question that the created situation should pose to the audience. Thanks to this, their cognitive activity is stimulated;
4. There is another technique that literally forces listeners to think and speculate. This technique is called the “reception of novelty of information”;
5. The next technique is based on personal experience, on personal opinions, on what has always been and will be interesting to the listener;
6. “Demonstration technique”: how significant is practical information;
7. The same technique gives the audience a “break,” that is, it is necessary to deviate a little from the topic;
8. This technique is called “quiet voice”. With its help, it is not at all difficult to draw attention to important places in the speaker’s public speech. It is necessary to simultaneously slow down and lower the strength of the voice;
9. This technique is called the “gradation technique.” That is, this is an increase in the semantic and emotional significance of the word. This technique can help both strengthen and give emotional expressiveness to both a formulated thought and just an ordinary phrase;
10. Reception of inversion. This technique is a figure of speech. Such a turn can turn the generally accepted, common course of expressions and thoughts into the opposite direction;
11. This technique is called “the technique of appealing to one’s thoughts.”

Next, what I would like to note are lexical techniques due to the fact that they significantly increase the persuasiveness of oratorical speech. Tropes are what the manuals for a given art recommend for use in oratory.

Trope - (from the Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) the figurative meaning of the word, that is, the expression of words, phrases in a figurative meaning. If we take this term in a narrow view, then it is a word transformation, with the help of which one can achieve the aesthetic effect of expressiveness in speech. The trails include the following:

1. comparisons;
2. metaphors;
3. epithets;
4. allegories;
5. hyperboles and others.

Metaphor: using this technique, the name is transferred from one object to some other object. This is a speech rapprochement of two phenomena due to either similarity or contrast (“The locomotive of history cannot be stopped...”).

Comparison: this technique is popular in use, it is used much more often than all others because it is with the help of this technique that the speaker can achieve the result that was intended. Comparison is endowed with colossal persuasive power; it is capable of activating both figurative and associative thinking of listeners.

Epithet: this technique allows you to reveal the essence of an object or phenomenon by defining it figuratively (“A student is not a vessel that should be filled with knowledge, but a torch that needs to be lit!..”).

Hyperbole: with the help of this technique, the properties or qualities of phenomena or objects are deliberately exaggerated (“A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper”).

Allegory: this technique is capable of allegorically depicting something (“Once a passer-by asked a builder: “What are you doing?” He thought and answered: “Don’t you see? I’m carrying stones.” The second builder answered the same question: “I’m making money!” ).

It should be noted that in a speech it is best to pay attention to short sentences, as they are much better remembered and also better perceived. In addition, such proposals allow a more varied approach to changing intonation.

The means that were listed above serve not only to unite the audience and the speaker, but to overcome the so-called “barrier”.

What is a description?

Type of speech that answers what question? and listing the characteristics of objects is called a description. The content of a descriptive fragment can be drawn in one picture. It is used in texts of different styles, differing in functions and linguistic means. Descriptions can be difficult to understand. The peculiarity is that they depict a static picture.

The description text can be about the past: the author delves into memories of what an object, person, or area was like. The same objects can be characterized in the present; one can imagine what they will look like in the future.

Types of text with description

The author’s task is to create a text so that the reader can clearly imagine the person, the setting, the mood. Depending on what the text says, there are several types of descriptions.

• Description of the item. In linguistics, “object” is a three-dimensional concept, these are things, animals, people. A description of a person is called a portrait, and a psychological characteristic can be considered a type.
• Description of the human condition, his dynamic portrait. The mood, feelings, emotions experienced by people constitute the essence of the fragment.
• Description of the state of the environment. Most often, the word “environment” refers to nature; its image is called “landscape”. Most often used in works of art.
• Description of place and time. This could be a story about a house, its interior decoration - the interior, a city, another geographical object, for example, the steppe. The author depicts the world in which events take place.

Description composition

The description goes from the main to the secondary, based on one model:

1. General idea of ​​a thing, condition, place.
2. Characteristics of the individual elements that make up the object of interest.
3. Conclusion, author's assessment, general impression.

The composition is subject to the author's general plan. By describing an object, he determines which details of the object are important for understanding its essence. The author acts as an artist, a transmitting device. The reader, having become acquainted with the description, must draw in his imagination the picture created by the words.

As an example, we can consider a small typical fragment.

Amazing house.

1. The house we entered was amazing! 2. Spacious rooms are filled with light and air. The massive wooden furniture seemed airy. It was entirely decorated with carved and sawn lace. Antique lamps, tiled stove. There are paintings and photographs on the walls. And a staircase twisted up to the second floor, like a curly strand. 3. It felt like we were in a good old fairy tale.

In the text, numbers indicate compositional parts. It starts with the general impression. The main part describes the interior elements: furniture, lamps, paintings, stairs. Ends with conveying the general impression. All structural elements are met here. If the description is part of a large text, then some elements may be missing.

Features of the language design of the description

Common to all descriptive texts is the use of a large number of nouns and adjectives, participles, and adverbs. Proposals are structured according to the scheme: what? Who? - Which? For example: (Who?) The man (what?) was short. (What?) His large hands (what?) seemed alien on his puny body. Nes verbs are used. present day and past time, which show the location of objects in the same time plane.

Linguistic means depend on the style and scope of use. In artistic and journalistic styles, descriptions carry an emotional and evaluative load. In accordance with this, language means are selected. Characterized by an abundance of epithets, metaphors, comparisons, hyperboles and other tropes. The description includes expressive and evaluative vocabulary. Authors often use verbless constructions, emphasizing the expressiveness of details.

In business papers, accuracy, restraint, and conciseness are important. Words are used in their literal meaning; a large number of patterns and terms are noted.

Main types of arguments

By presenting arguments that cannot be argued with, the speaker must convince the listener of the truth of the statements that, in turn, have been put forward by him.

An argument is a logical, irrefutable argument that serves as the basis for proof. 6The correctness of the arguments has been tested and proven by practice, so the argumentation convinces listeners of the correctness of the provisions expressed by the speaker.

There are various arguments. In such a science as rhetoric, the following are distinguished:

1. Arguments to the merits of the matter - in this case, the arguments will be those factors that were ultimately obtained from observations, documents, material, both statistical and digital, and so on.
2. Arguments to a person: have impacts that are emotional on the audience.

In oratory practice, arguments to a person are used no less often than arguments to the essence of the matter. In fact, the arguments to a person are very diverse, there are quite a large number of them, but I would like to note the following:

1. an argument for pity, that is, this is done in order to evoke pity, a feeling of compassion among opponents and thereby persuade them to one’s side;
2. argument to the individual: the speaker puts his opponents in a negative light, thereby setting his listeners against them; all this is done by changing the subject of discussion;
3. argument to vanity, that is, they praise opponents in order to soften their opposition;
4. argument to the public, that is, the speaker tries to turn his audience only towards himself and confront opponents;
5. arguments to authority, that is, the speaker refers to the opinions of outstanding scientists, writers, figures, if their position coincides with the position of the speaker.

Such arguments may not always be correct, and it is on this basis that they should not be recommended to current speakers. However, there is an exception - this is an argument to authority; This argument very often finds its application in academic speeches, as well as in scientific reports.

But, despite all of the above, it is necessary to take into account the fact that there are also statements that cannot be accepted as true (this is not an indicator that the author of such a statement is an outstanding scientist, thinker or activist). When referring to them, the author must be extremely careful.

Variety of forms

The diversity of characters and forms of language use is due to the presence of many forms of human activity. Types of statements are written and oral. They reflect the conditions and tasks of a specific field of activity, thanks to content, style, means (vocabulary, phraseology, grammar), and composition. The sphere of use develops its own genres and types. These include everyday dialogue, a story, a letter, an order, and business documents.

Heterogeneity makes it difficult to determine the general nature of statements.

Genres of speech are divided into secondary and primary (complex and simple). Complex ones are written (mostly works of art, scientific articles, etc.). Simple - communication through speech. If you focus only on the primary ones, then a situation of “vulgarization” of the problem will arise. Only the study of the two types in unity has linguistic and philological significance.

Speech preparation and presentation

There are three interrelated questions that the speaker faces:

1. How to say?
2. Where to say?
3. What to say?

The process of developing a speech begins with understanding the topic of your speech, its main idea. Relevance, interestingness, specificity, accessibility - all these qualities should be possessed by the chosen topic. The title of the lecture is also important, since it should not only intrigue the future audience and attract their attention, but also reflect the entire content of the speaker’s speech.

What I would like to tell you about the goal: it is necessary to clearly outline it - the speaker not only tries to form in his audience specific beliefs and ideas that determine their further behavior, but also conveys information to the audience, talks about any facts or events. Whatever the speech, it must have an educational purpose, that is, the speaker, to the best of his ability, must introduce his audience to his own moral interests. This process should take place unnoticed by the listeners.

Imagining how the audience will perceive the speech and what will be incomprehensible to them is an integral part of preparing a public speech. The speaker is obliged not only to know, but also to take into account the composition of his future listeners. If the speech is not given to all listeners in general, but to a specific group of people who have their own goals and interests, then the effectiveness of the speech will increase noticeably.

Composing the speech itself, working on factual and theoretical material is the next stage, that is, it is necessary to formalize the speech compositionally and stylistically.

In order to study the material, you can turn to manuals, dictionaries, reference books, and so on.

After the material has been studied well, as a rule, they write either a summary of the text of the speech, or its outline, or the entire text, or theses.

Performance methods:

1. reading text;
2. reproducing it from memory with reading individual fragments;
3. free improvisation.

In what cases is the text read? So, let's look at them:

1. if it represents an official statement, the form and content of which cannot be deviated from;
2. if the speaker is “out of shape”;
3. if the material is large and completely new to the speaker.

When a speaker reads his speech and the audience's reaction gets out of control, it is very tiring. The failure of speakers is due to the fact that when reading a text “from a piece of paper” the speech becomes the same (monotonous), fast, and this quickly begins to tire the audience.

Before starting his public speech, the speaker needs to carefully prepare his speech to the smallest detail. It is necessary to correctly determine the topic, purpose, and title of the public speech, while taking into account both the composition of the audience and the situation. After this, you need to draw up a plan, select both theoretical and factual material. Rehearsal is a part that is considered necessary during preparation; it is impossible to do without it. Attention should be focused on pronunciation technique, but other aspects should not be left in the shadows during preparation.

At the final stage of preparing for a public speech, it is necessary to analyze it more than once, take into account such aspects of the speech as strengths and weaknesses, and already in the audience, when addressing your listeners, rely on the positive.7

7.1. Fundamentals of Rhetoric

The most important thing that most students gain from practicing public speaking is increased self-confidence, a stronger belief in their ability to do something. And what could be more important than this for achieving success in almost any business?

D. Carnegie

Rhetoric

is the theory and art of eloquence, persuasive speech communication.

Rhetoric arose in antiquity, and at the same time its two directions emerged: logical and literary.

For logical rhetoric

the main thing is the persuasiveness of the speech, its effectiveness, i.e. achieving truth, goodness, justice. The most prominent representative of the logical direction was Aristotle (384-322 BC).

The founder of logic perfectly understood its boundaries and noted that logic is suitable for educated people, but is powerless in front of the crowd. Therefore, he developed the foundations of logical rhetoric. “... even if we have the most accurate knowledge, it is still not easy to convince some people, speaking on the basis of this knowledge, because [to evaluate] speech based on knowledge is a matter of education, but here [in front of a crowd] it is impossible. Here we must certainly conduct proofs and reasonings in a public way... regarding the appeal to the crowd.”

The main thing for literary rhetoric

– artistry, ornamentation of speech, compliance with the canons of aesthetics; persuasiveness remains an important feature of speech, but fades into the background. The most prominent representative of literary rhetoric is Aristotle’s opponent, student of Gorgias and other sophists - Isocrates (436–338 BC).

During Hellenistic and medieval times, rhetoric in general began to be identified with literary rhetoric. In the 18th century, during the Enlightenment, when the positions of reason and logic became strong, rhetoric became associated with idle talk and dogma, and interest in it was lost. Only in the last 30-40 years has logically oriented neo-rhetoric

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2 pages, 688 words

Rhetoric_20th century

... the basis of his ideas, although later representatives of many sciences began to develop and enrich it. His contribution to the development of practical rhetoric... practical advice on practicing all components of public speech - from note-taking and planning to voice. ... - Paul L. Soper, who published the excellent book “Basics of the Art of Speech” (in the English original - Basic Public Speaking, New York, 1956). This book was...

About the personality of the speaker

Rhetorical skill is closely related to a person’s general culture, his erudition, worldview and psychotype. Erudition is the basis for rich material for the content of speech. Erudite people are distinguished by a constant desire for new knowledge and to expand the scope of their interests.

In relation to worldview, four types of speakers can be distinguished:

1) sophistical;

2) dialectical (Socratic);

3) dogmatic;

4) immature.

1) Sophists

[see paragraph 1.9] believed that there are no objective truths, “man is the measure of all things,” and the main task of the speaker is to convince the audience that it is beneficial and interesting to him, no matter by what means.
Therefore, the speech of the sophists is: a) manipulative
and
monological
, the addressee for them is a passive object of influence, and not an active subject;
b) agonal
(from the Greek
agon
- struggle, competition), i.e. aimed not at the truth, but at the victory of one and the defeat of the other.

2) The word “ dialectical”

“here means a focus on dialogue to jointly approach the truth.
Socrates, the main opponent of the Sophists, believed that objective truths exist, and the main task of the speaker is not victory or struggle, but the awakening of thought, a joint approach to the truth through dialogical communication with the addressee. Socrates often began his dialogues: “I know that I know nothing... and yet I want to think and search with you.” Therefore, Socratic speech: a) dialogical,
it looks for an interlocutor in the listener;
b) harmonizing
, i.e. it is aimed at uniting the efforts of the participants in the conversation in order to achieve truth, a common goal, and agreement.

3) Dogmatists

, unlike Socrates, they firmly know what truth is and how to translate it into reality. Dogmatism, as shown by the founder of critical rationalism K. Popper, follows from the classical rationalism of R. Descartes. The ideal of classical rationalism was the construction of an unshakable objective scientific picture of the world. The dogmatic idea of ​​the inviolability and objectivity of knowledge has always been the basis for totalitarian speech. The dogmatic type of speaker is embodied by Stalin and Hitler. Dogmatists express themselves simply and vividly, and therefore quite often lead crowds of people who refuse their own thinking and feeling. Dogmatists rely on their charisma, short-sightedness of the audience, instilling fear, aggressive feelings, and violence. Dogmatic speech: a) monologue; b) intolerant of dissent.

4) Immature

The type of speaker is represented by people who are personally immature, speaking in front of an audience because they were told to speak, or in order to somehow stand out, but they do not fully know what they are talking about. Naturally, many students may feel like immature speakers. Such students can be advised to believe in themselves, work on themselves, and improve their intellectual and personal level. As N. Zabolotsky called:

Don't let your soul be lazy!

So as not to pound water in a mortar,

The soul must work

And day and night, and day and night!

More specifically, novice speakers should: firstly, select topics that would be interesting to both themselves and the listeners; secondly, prepare well for the performance.

4 pp., 1579 words

Speech development lesson. description of a person's appearance

... speech, gestures that serve to describe internal characteristics. The main thing in describing appearance is to try to convey the inner world of the hero of the essay... the topic of the lesson is written on the slide., Description of a person’s appearance based on personal observations. (Description of appearance - personal observations.) (... Card We have a girl in our class. She has... questions to clarify information 5. Creative practical activities on...

The goal of any speech is to convince the listeners, and this goal is achieved if the listeners trust the speaker. Therefore, of all four types of speakers, the second type is the most reasonable, humane and democratic. Plutarch, Aristotle and Cicero adhered to the Socratic understanding of oratory. Plutarch said: “one single word, one nod from a person who inspires confidence in himself weighs more than other lengthy arguments.” Aristotle believed that the main goal of rhetoric is to achieve happiness, goodness, truth, justice, etc. Aristotle in “Rhetoric” wrote: “There are three reasons that arouse confidence in the speaker, because there are just so many things in which we believe without evidence - these are reason, virtue and benevolence. If, in this way, it seems to the listeners that the speaker has all these qualities, they will certainly feel confidence in him. Cicero called on speakers to fight for the happiness of people. In the long term, the Socratic type of speaker inspires more confidence in people than the sophistic and dogmatic one. This is evidenced by the fact that philosophers trust Socrates more than the sophists.

It is legitimate to divide speakers according to psychological personality types.

In accordance with psychotypes according to K.G. According to Jung, speakers are divided into extroverts and introverts.

Extroverts

(directed outward) - directed towards the outside world, sociable, impulsive, optimistic, quickly reacting to external stimuli, quick, but, unfortunately, often superficial thinkers.

Introverts

(directed inward) - self-absorbed, calm, shy, slow but deeply thinking, rarely showing their emotions.

Extroverted speakers can come up with something on the spot. Introverts need time to collect their thoughts. Given equal public speaking skills, extroverts as speakers are more confident than introverted speakers.

S.F. Ivanova divided speakers into four types.

1. Rational-intuitive type
   . This includes sanguine people - people who are mentally and physically active, quickly reacting to current events, with an analytical mindset, with pronounced facial expressions and movements); They think through a detailed plan for the performance, but they are also concerned about the brightness, emotionality, and imagery of the performance. They easily start new things, but do not always complete them.
2. Emotional-intuitive type
   . This includes choleric people. These people speak passionately and enthusiastically, but often lack logical consistency in their speech.
3. Philosophical type
   . Most often they are mentally stable, have a measured pace of speech and weak emotional expression of phlegmatic people. They are researchers willing and able to engage audiences in thought.
4. Lyrical, artistic and figurative type
   . Most often, these are melancholic people with their deep emotionality, peculiar lyricism, and inner excitement.

Whatever the psychotype of the speaker, his worldview and erudition, the speaker automatically occupies the status of a more authoritative person than the listeners, and rhetoric puts forward a number of general requirements for the speaker. These include: charm, confidence, artistry, friendliness, sincerity, objectivity, interest, passion, openness. The attention of listeners depends on factors such as the authority, appearance, and charisma of the speaker. First of all, in this regard, you should be, or at least look like, a self-confident, positive, democratic, spiritually strong, gallant and externally and internally attractive person. It is very important to compare yourself with others and talk to them as loved ones. A positive and democratically minded speaker has a greater chance of success with the interlocutor than an authoritarian-minded speaker who behaves in accordance with the speech model “I’m here to talk, you’re here to listen.”

Types of speech

Types of speech acts depending on the speaker's purpose

The main purpose of public speaking is to persuade the audience to accept the speaker's position. In rhetoric, the following speech goals and corresponding types of speech are also distinguished.

Each type of speech has its own specifics and must rely on its own tactics. Don't get confused about styles.

Laws of modern rhetoric

1. The law of harmonizing dialogue
   - effective speech influence is possible only with dialogic interaction between participants in a speech situation.
2. The law of promotion and orientation of the addressee.
   In the introduction, the speaker must show the audience the goal, the main intermediate stages in achieving the goal, and in the process of presenting the main part of the speech, show progress along the path to the goal.
3. The law of emotionality and expressiveness.
   Only if the speaker himself experiences emotionally what he is reporting, will he be able to not leave the audience indifferent. Speech becomes expressive through the use of metaphors and techniques of nonverbal (facial expressions, gestures, posture) and paraverbal communication (intonation, timbre, tempo, rhythm, voice pitch).

   Expressive speech is the basis for maintaining the attention of listeners.

4. Law of pleasure.
   Creation of a game setting, riddles, paradoxes, puns, wordplay, provocations.

To establish dialogue, it is necessary to adhere to the following principles of harmonizing dialogue

:

1) attention to the addressee (the topic and speech must be suitable for the audience).

To do this, you must know or at least assume about the interests of the audience and the level of its theoretical training (uncritical or critically thinking audience, high or low level of education).

For audiences with a low level of education, simple expressions should be selected. For an audience with a high level of education, you should find means to confirm your competence in the matter);

2) the principle of intimateization (closeness of content) of speech to life and the interests of the audience;

3) concreteness, imagery and conversational style of speech.

It is believed that the audience can only listen attentively for 15 minutes, after which they become tired and distracted. It is necessary to use techniques to attract attention.

Techniques for attracting attention

— appeal to authorities and well-known sources;

- appeal to the interests of the audience;

- appeal to the personality of the speaker;

— appeal to weather, climatic, geographical conditions;

- appeal to the speech of the previous speaker;

- appeal to events;

— visual information,

— questions to the audience, including rhetorical questions and requests;

- gestures;

- presentation and reminder of the purpose of the speech;

- presentation of a paradoxical situation;

- unusualness of the performance (if all the speakers are standing at the lectern, then stand next to the lectern or move a little around the stage).

- appeal;

- pauses,

- acceptance of empathy, complicity;

- change in intonation, timbre and speed of speech,

- humorous remark.

Pose

. Posture says a lot about a person, his self-confidence, and status. It is very important for a speaker to develop the habit of standing straight and relaxed. Calls should be made by moving the body forward.

Gestures

A public speaker should have his head above the waist, generally above the waist, with his palms facing down. Elbows should not be pressed to the body.

Facial expressions

must express positive emotions. The speaker shares with the audience not only his knowledge, but also his emotions.

In ancient rhetoric, a classical scheme was established, according to which a five-part division of the rhetorical process was proposed - the path from thought to the sounding public word.

The structure of oratory speech

In order to better understand the material below, I repeat once again that an oratorical speech consists of the following parts:

1. introduction - to draw the attention of the public, and it is also necessary to make it clear to the audience how important the chosen topic is, how serious and sensational it is;
2. proof - to argue the idea that was expressed in a condensed form during a public speech, as well as to fit statistical data, factors, logical constructions and emotionally charged phrases to these ideas;
3. conclusion - fixing in the listener’s memory both the desired impression and the main idea of ​​the speaker, which has already been expressed, to summarize the entire speech.

Well, now we can talk about parts of public speech. There are types of speeches, let's look at them:

1. Positive performance. This is the most popular of all available. It immediately presents the main concept in an intelligible, but very declarative, one might say poster form.
2. Negative speech. This provides a refutation of a thought, concept or idea without any alternative.
3. Analytical. This speech does not impose any specific positions on the audience. It suggests exploring the factors together. However, the information is selected in such a way that the audience already has a specific opinion necessary for the speaker from the very beginning of the speech.
4. Paradoxical. This performance puzzles the audience, leads them off the stereotypical path, thereby preparing them to perceive something unusual. The structure is exactly the same as the negative one, that is, the audience is kept in the dark about the speaker’s positive proposal until the very end of the public speech.
5. Emotional. This speech is the most vague. It often happens that an emotional speech can do without any parts of a public speech or can include other parts of a public speech. The form can be compared with a positive speech. However, the content is slightly different: there is no hint of a call, no formal call.

Just as there are types of public speaking, there are types of evidence. There are four types of evidence. So, let's look at them:

1. Logical proof. Relies on rational thinking, leads the audience to the truth of thought;
2. Informational evidence. During this proof, either reference material, or statistical data, or facts are provided;
3. Emotional proof. This requires both acting skills and enormous dedication from the speaker. Sometimes it is convenient to confirm the correctness of an idea by referring to authorities. The speaker’s thought is expressed imperatively.
4. Reference proof. The speaker, who has many years of oratorical experience behind him, relies on previously prepared theses and uses references to the opinions of authoritative individuals or organizations to confirm the value and correctness of his position.

The problem of genres according to Bakhtin

The relationship between generally accepted (folk) and individual styles is a problematic issue of expression. In order to study style well, it is necessary to responsibly approach the issue of studying the genre (speech). Bakhtin said that speech can actually exist only in the form of specific utterances of individual speaking people (subjects). Speech genres form the basis of his concept of views on speech as a real unit of communication. According to Bakhtin, speech is cast in the form of an utterance and cannot exist without it. The change of speech subjects is the first feature of an utterance. The second is completeness (integrity), which has a connection with:

• subject-semantic exhaustion;
• speech intention (the will of the speaker);
• forms of completion typical of the composition and genre of completion.

The genre of the planned utterance influences the choice of vocabulary. MM. Bakhtin attaches great importance to genre forms. Thanks to genre recognition, from the very beginning of communication we have a sense of the speech whole. Without this, communication would be difficult and almost impossible.

Types of public speaking techniques

Conventionally, oratorical techniques can be divided into several classes or so-called “types”. The classification allows you to create a more structured plan for study and subsequent practice, so that you can work step by step towards perfection of speech patterns and tricks. So, there are the following techniques of oratory:

Tropes are different types of comparisons that allow you to rid your speech of unnecessary repetition and, if necessary, express the appropriate emotional intensity during the speech. If you want to perfectly study the secrets of oratory, then you should start with epithets, metaphors and allegories, which will allow you to master both journalism and academic speech

In addition, often when it is necessary to explain complex terminology or technology, allegories will always come to the rescue. Repetitions are the opposite of the above-mentioned type of oratorical tricks, allowing you to concentrate the public’s attention on a specific fact or moment of the speech. As with tropes, you need to be able to use them without oversaturating your speech in order to maintain balance

The types of repetitions and tropes used directly depend on the type of speech that you decide to use in a particular case. So, during an academic speech, it is better to use word-for-word repetition of the main points of the plan being read, so that what is said is better fixed in the minds of the listeners. Focusing is one method of tailoring material to the audience. It is necessary to understand who you are speaking to and what will be the main thing in your words for this audience. One of the elements of this type is framing, which translated from English means “Breaking into parts,” remains an important element of neurolinguistic techniques for programming people. This is the ability to present an idea to people so that they think that it is their own idea. A frame is a kind of context in which you present a particular statement. Like placing commas in sentences, it can greatly change the underlying meaning of your speech. On this topic, it is best to read the book “Tricks of Language” by Robert Dilts, in which he describes how you can present the same idea, as well as how to change the angle of people’s perception to suit the speaker. There are 14 basic framing techniques that simplify the presentation of material. Sophistry is a false statement presented under the guise of an axiom. It is often used in philosophical debates and church speeches in order to confuse the opponent. The point is that you deliberately want to mislead the listener in order to then show a way out by concentrating his attention on a particular problem. Sophisms can be divided into logical and terminological; one of the well-known ones is the word “Literally”, which is often used in the wrong interpretation. Sophisms are divided into open and secret, the latter being resorted to as a last resort. Their goal is also diametrically opposite, because in the first case you are trying to gain the trust of the audience by showing your openness and good logic. In the second, the speaker tries to deliberately mislead the audience in order to present this or that thought from the right angle. If you are caught in hidden sophistry, you risk losing the attention and trust of the public, which will lead to a disastrous outcome, so you should be extremely careful with this tool. Other techniques, which include various techniques for embellishing speech and expressing one’s thoughts. These include allegory, which is also used in tropes, but is often not classified as this type of oratorical technique. This type is studied after you have mastered all the others, and is a jewelry tool that allows you to sharpen your technique, ridding your speech of possible ailments or, conversely, embellishing an already formed oratory.

Each type has from 4 to 15 different techniques, and talking about each one will take a lot of time. Let's highlight the basic techniques of oratory and their content, with which it is worth starting to get acquainted with the art of oratory, and which are necessary for every person who speaks in front of the public or wants to improve his speech.